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It could be used for example for the world famish , in the cancer research and in the energy sector. Moreover, the event will make point on the customer behaviour research and how to develop new product to satisfied the necessity and request of the market. Top Legal notice Cookies Contact information Site map. Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Chapter 4. Chapter 5. Spirulina and its Health Benefits quantity. Additional information Binding eBook , Softcover. Modal Title. Dogs were exercised 3 days a week during the 42 week study, using a routine that was been previously described Fecal score was recorded daily and graded using a seven-point scale with a score of 1 representing firm, hard feces and a score of 7 representing liquid diarrhea Supplementary Table 2.
A score of 2 or 3 is considered ideal. This is a functional assay and measures the ability of antibodies in the serum to neutralize rabies virus, and hence is a good reflection of how effectively the animal would be able to ward off a potential infection with the rabies virus.
The test was carried out by the Rabies Laboratory of Kansas State University according to a method previously published Values for fecal IgA were normalized with the total protein content.
C-reactive protein CRP is an acute phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation. It is recognized as a sensitive marker of tissue damage and inflammation. CRP was measured as a general marker of inflammation to confirm that any immune enhancement was not a result of, or did not lead to, a generalized inflammation or non-specific immunostimulation. At week 42, after 2 days of rest, all dogs participated in their standard exercise program. Dogs ran 10 miles in a harness pulling an unladen sled.
Each team contain approximately equal numbers of control and Spirulina supplemented dogs. There was no difference in time to complete the task between teams average 33 min and 30 s. This exercise was used as an inducer of physiological challenge to examine the effect of Spirulina on the gut microbiota stability.
TTGE analysis allows the separation of 16S rRNA gene fragments that have been amplified by PCR and is a commonly used technique to identify microbiota microbial profiles 26 described below. Similarity scores of the Spirulina supplemented group where compared to the control group Supplementary Table 3. TTGE analysis was used to identify modulations in microbial profile of fecal samples in association with dietary supplementation with Spirulina as time points as described above.
Digitized images were analyzed using the GelCompar II version 2. Band classes were established and band densities based on height and band surface within each class were tabulated. Each band class contained all the bands that migrated to the same adjusted location on the gels. Dunnett's test was used to adjust for multiple comparisons with the control group. At the start of the trial the average weight of the dogs in the test group was Food intake and body weight did not differ between the two groups during the trial data not shown.
There was no significant difference between control and the Spirulina supplemented diet on all blood chemistry parameters measured data not shown. No significant difference in fecal scores was also observed between dietary groups data not shown. Levels of CRP, a marker of inflammation, measured toward the end of trial, were well within the normal range 0. Figure 2.
All dogs received a rabies vaccination at week 0. The vaccine is commercially available, approved for use in dogs, routinely used in veterinary practice, and was chosen in consultation with the veterinarian.
Figure 3. BL denotes baseline value. Using TTGE microbial profiling, dogs' gut microbiota patterns were compared before and after exercise. Exercising induces a certain amount of physiological stress on the dogs. In this study we have demonstrated that 0. Spirulina increased fecal IgA levels after just 9 weeks of feeding, and this effect was maintained throughout the study. Gut microbiota maintained enhanced stability following a challenging exercise in the Spirulina fed dogs as compared to the control group.
Systemic immune responsiveness was found to be fortified with Spirulina feeding leading to a faster and stronger induction of rabies vaccine titer.
Together these results suggest that Spirulina fed dogs have a healthier and more robust immune system. We previously demonstrated that increased fecal sIgA levels could be induced with the dietary inclusion of a immunomodulating agents such as bovine colostrum 23 or the lactic acid probiotic Enterococcus faecium SF68 We now extend this finding to Spirulina platensis and provide further evidence of the health benefits of immunonutrition for companion animals.
IgA plays an important role in defending against pathogenic infection, in preventing antigens from entering the epithelium, and in the selection and maintenance of colonizing bacteria Intestinal IgA's primary role is to maintain intestinal homeostasis and to protect mucosal membranes from infection by pathogenic microorganisms and enteric toxins by inducing a process known as immune exclusion IgA maintains immune exclusion through a number of ways, for example, by binding to antigens trapping them in the mucus and preventing their binding to cell surface receptors, and by reducing bacterial virulence In dogs, a reduction in fecal sIgA has been shown to be associated with some chronic enteropathies 32 , 33 , suggesting fecal sIgA level is an indicator of intestinal immune health.
At a mechanistic level, it is known that Spirulina can have a direct action on intestinal immune cell function and one mechanism explored includes the activation of intestinally located TLR's 6 , 9. Previous studies have also shown that Spirulina or extracts of Spirulina could enhance gut IgA levels 13 , In mice orally administered shrimp extract as an antigen, intestinal IgA levels were shown to be increased in Spirulina as compared to control fed mice In another study, ovalbumin was administered to mice to induce antigen-specific antibodies in their lymphoid tissues.
This induced both antigen specific IgA and total IgA in the Peyer's patch however, the effect was significantly enhanced in an ovalbumin and phycocyanin combined group compared to ovalbumin alone. In the serum, phycocyanin prevented the antigen induced increase in IgG1 and IgE levels, and suppressed ovalbumin induced inflammation of the intestine The authors of this mouse study proposed that phycocyanin, extracted from Spirulina platanis , may reduce allergic inflammation by supressing antigen specific IgE and augmenting intestinal IgA production.
The production of antigen specific sIgA from IgA-secreting cells in Peyer's patches, and accompanying higher fecal sIgA levels, has been suggested to be a mechanism for the development of food tolerance Therefore, by supporting intestinal immune function, Spirulina , may not only help reduce opportunistic infections but may also help prevent food intolerance. In our current study, fecal sIgA levels were increased after just 2 months of feeding Spirulina and the positive enhancement was maintained to the end of the week study.
Interestingly in a human study of oral Spirulina administration, immunostimulatory effects of Spirulina were evident up to 4 weeks after the end of administration 9 , indicating the dogs included in this study could have continued gut health benefits even after the end of the trial. In this study, Hirahashi et al. The health of the immune system can be evaluated by how subjects respond to exercise 23 , as exercise can temporally lower immune status The intestinal microbiota is dynamic and temporal variations of content occur over time in response to life events such as stress, age, illness, and even exercise We have previously shown that a more stable gut microbiota can resist exercise induced changes in gut microbiota Like our previous study, we were also interested to determine if Spirulina could improve gut microbiota stability.
At 42 weeks, all dogs participated in an exercise protocol involving a 2-day rest period followed by a mile sled run. Although we did not determine which specific species of gut microbes were modulated by Spirulina , a previous in vitro study has shown that Spirulina can increase the growth of lactic acid bacteria Lactic acid bacteria are normal residents of canine gut microbiota 39 and lactic acid probiotics have a safe and effective history in dogs 24 , By contrast, gut microbiota species diversity was not modulated by Spirulina supplementation, which is in line with the only other previous study that examined the effect of Spirulina platensis on the gut microbiota and were mice similarly showed no change in gut microbiota diversity Interestingly, Spirulina has also previously been shown to prevent oxidative damage to skeletal muscle normally associated with exercise in untrained subjects 41 , which together with this current finding indicates Spirulina is of significant benefit to negate the negative impacts of high endurance activity.
It is currently unclear through which mechanism Spirulina would influence the gut microbiota, however, the overall improvement in gut microbiota stability is likely to be connected its improvement gut immune status.
The gut microbiota and gut immune system are critically interlinked. For example, the intestinal microbiota increases the proliferation of IgA synthesizing plasma cells in the intestine 42 , while mucosal IgA enhances the homeostasis of gut commensal microbiota Thus, beneficial effects of Spirulina on gut immunity will reciprocate on the gut microbiota, and vice versa.
Marine algae are known to produce soluble polysaccharides which escape conventional digestion and are fermented by the gut microbiota Extracts of Spirulina platensis have been shown to stimulate lactic acid bacteria growth 38 and can increase probiotic yields in a dairy products 45 , thus indicating soluble polysaccharides of Spirulina may similarly escape conventional digestion, but rather reach the colon and provide substrates for microbiota growth.
Here we vaccinated the dogs with a rabies vaccine just prior to them starting the dietary trial with Spirulina. Dogs in both the control and Spirulina dietary groups mounted an immune response to the vaccination as evidenced by the production of rabies vaccine specific antibodies. Similarly, one previous study in mice demonstrated an increased tetanus toxoid vaccine response 21 days post vaccination, in mice orally administered with Spirulina powder for 7 days prior to, and thereafter, vaccination compared to control mice who did not receive Spirulina We have previously used co-incident vaccination protocols with dietary manipulations to understand how a given diet could influence systemic immunity as vaccine responses are a relevant biomarkers of an immunological response to challenge 23 , 24 , and can be interpreted as a surrogate marker of a typical immune response to infection A poor response to vaccination can lead to higher rates of clinical illness 48 , Here Spirulina supplemented dogs are likely to have a better resilience to infection through the strengthening of their immune system.
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